Analyse food chains, energy flow diagrams and ecological pyramids to determine - efficiencies of energy and biomass transfer - gross and net productivity - loss of energy through radiation, reflection and absorption.

An energy flow diagram shows that herbivores receive 14,000 kJ m⁻² year⁻¹ from producers, but only 2,100 kJ m⁻² year⁻¹ is transferred to carnivores. Calculate the percentage efficiency of energy transfer from herbivores to carnivores.

An energy flow diagram shows that producers capture \(48{,}000\) kJ m\(^{-2}\) year\(^{-1}\) from sunlight. Of this, \(29{,}000\) kJ m\(^{-2}\) year\(^{-1}\) is lost through respiration and heat, and \(12{,}500\) kJ m\(^{-2}\) year\(^{-1}\) is transferred to primary consumers. Calculate the energy lost to decomposers at the producer level.

A wetland ecosystem receives \(180{,}000\) kJ m\(^{-2}\) year\(^{-1}\) of solar energy. Of this, \(95{,}000\) kJ m\(^{-2}\) year\(^{-1}\) is reflected or absorbed by the atmosphere and water surface, and \(18{,}000\) kJ m\(^{-2}\) year\(^{-1}\) is used in evaporation and transpiration. The remaining energy is available for photosynthesis by producers. Determine the amount of energy available for photosynthesis. Show your working.