Chemistry · QCAA
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▶1 — Chemical fundamentals — structure, properties and reactions79 LOs
▶Properties and structure of atoms39 LOs
▶Atomic structure39 LOs
●Analyse data for atomic radii, valencies, ionic radii, 1st ionisation energy and electronegativities to determine periodic trends, patterns and relationships. Introduction to bonding●Analyse flame tests and atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) to identify elements and determine the concentration of metallic ions in solution. Chem istry 2025 v1.3 Periodic table and trends●Analyse mass spectrometry spectra, to determine the isotopic composition of elements, the relative atomic mass of an element and percentage abundances of the isotopes of an element.●Apply the Aufbau principle, Hund’s rule and the Pauli exclusion principle to write electron configurations for atoms and ions up to Z = 36.●Apply the nuclear symbol notation M𝑍 𝐴 to determine the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in atoms, ions and isotopes.●atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) and the concentration of aqueous metallic ions.* *Note: Simulations may be used.●Compare the metallic and non-metallic behaviours of elements, including group trends and the reactivity for the alkali metals (Li–Cs) and the halogens (F–I).●Describe that atoms can be modelled as a nucleus surrounded by electrons in distinct energy levels.●Describe that isotopes are atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons.●Describe the relationship between the structure of the periodic table and the electronic configuration of atoms.●Determine full and condensed electron configurations for atoms and ions up to Z = 36, e.g. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5 and [Ne]3s2 3p5.●Determine Lewis (electron dot) structure of molecules and ions showing all valence electrons for up to four electrons pairs for each atom.●Determine the formula and IUPAC name of ionic and molecular compounds.●Discriminate between absorption and emission line spectra.●Discriminate between the terms atomic number (Z), mass number (A) and isotopes of an element.●Discriminate between the terms empirical formula, molecular formula and the formula unit.●Explain how successive ionisation energy data is related to the electron configuration of an atom. Isotopes●Explain that chemical bonds are caused by electrostatic attractions that arise because of the sharing or transfer of electrons.●Explain that elements of the periodic table show trends in chemical and physical properties across periods and down groups as exemplified by groups 1, 2, 13 –18 and period 3.●Explain that flame tests and atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) rely on electron transfer between atomic energy levels.●Explain that ions are atoms or groups of atoms that are electrically charged due to an imbalance in the number of electrons and protons.●Explain that the ability of atoms to form chemical bonds, is related to the arrangement of electrons in the atom and the stability of the valence electron shell.●Explain that the emission spectrum of hydrogen provides evidence for the existence of electrons in discrete energy levels (Bohr model), which converge at higher energies.●Explain that the relative atomic mass of an element is the ratio of the weighted average mass per atom of the naturally occurring form of the element to 1/12 the mass of an atom of carbon-12. Analytical techniques●flame tests to identify elements●Identify that isotopes of an element have the same electron configuration and possess similar chemical properties but have different physical properties.●Identify that oxides change from basic through amphoteric to acidic across period 3.●Identify that the number of electrons lost, gained or shared is determined by the electron configuration of the atom.●Identify that the periodic table is arranged into four blocks associated with the four sub -levels — s, p, d and f.●Identify that the structure of the periodic table based on increasing atomic number.●Identify that the valency is a measure of the number of bonds that an atom can form.●Identify the electron configuration of Cr and Cu as exceptions.●Identify the numbers of bonding and lone pairs of electrons around each atom in a molecule. Chem istry 2025 v1.3●mass spectra and isotopes*●State that elements are represented by symbols.●State that isotopes can be represented in the form AX (IUPAC) or X-A.●State that mass spectrometry involves the ionisation of substances and the separation and detection of the resulting ions. (The operation of the mass spectrometer is not required.)●State that transition elements can form more than one ion.●State the relative energies of the s, p and d orbitals.
▶Properties and structure of materials15 LOs
▶Compounds and mixtures15 LOs
●Analyse data to determine the physical properties of pure substances and mixtures. Chem istry 2025 v1.3 Bonding and properties●Analyse data to determine the properties, structure and bonding of ionic, covalent and metallic compounds.●Describe the properties of ionic, covalent and metallic compounds, e.g. melting and boiling point, thermal and electrical conductivity, strength and hardness.●Discriminate between covalent molecules, giant covalent networks and allotropes of carbon.●Discriminate between heterogeneous and homogeneous mixtures.●Discriminate between ionic and metallic bonding.●Explain that hydrocarbons, including alkanes (saturated), alkenes (u nsaturated) and benzene, have different chemical properties that are determined by the nature of the bonding within the molecules.●Explain that the type of bonding within ionic, metallic and covalent substances determines their physical properties.●Explain the properties of covalent compounds by modelling covalent bonding as the sharing of an electron pair in the region between two nuclei with a strong electrostatic force of attraction between both nuclei.●Explain the properties of ionic compounds by modelling ionic bonding as ions arranged in a crystalline lattice structure with strong electrostatic forces of attraction between oppositely charged ions.●Identify that pure substances have distinct measurable properties (e.g. melting and boiling point, reactivity, strength, density) and mixtures have properties dependent on the identity and relative amounts of the substances that make them up.●State that pure substances may be elements or compounds.●tests to distinguish alkanes and alkenes.* *Note: Simulations may be used. Chem istry 2025 v1.3●the properties of ionic, metallic, and covalent compounds●the separation of mixtures based on physical properties
▶Chemical reactions — reactants, products and energy change25 LOs
▶Chemical reactions25 LOs
●Analyse data for heat of combustion, heat of neutralisation and reactions in aqueous solutions to determine heat, mass, specific heat capacity, temperature and enthalpy change. Chem istry 2025 v1.3 Mole concept and law of conservation of mass●Analyse data to determine percentage and theoretical yield. (Formula: percentage yield (%) = experimental yield theoretical yield × 100 1)●Analyse enthalpy level diagrams and thermochemical equations to determine the relative stabilities of reactants and products, and the sign of the enthalpy change (ΔH) for a reaction.●Apply the mole concept to calculate the mass of reactants and products; amount of substance in moles; number of representative particles; and molar mass of atoms, ions, molecules and formula units. (Formula: moles (𝑛) = mass (m) molar mass (M))●Calculate the enthalpy change (ΔH) for a reaction given temperature changes, quantities of reactants and mass of water. (Formula: ΔH = H(products) – H(reactants))●Calculate the heat change (Q) for a substance given the mass, specific heat capacity and temperature change. (Formula: Q = mcΔT)●Determine balanced chemical equations, including state symbols (s), (l), (g) and (aq), for a variety of reactions, e.g. single displacement, double-displacement, acid-base, combustion, combination, decomposition and simple redox reactions. Exothermic and endothermic reactions●Determine limiting reactants.●Determine the percentage composition from relative atomic masses; empirical formula of a compound from the percentage composition by mass; and molecular formula of a compound from its empirical formula and molar mass.●Discriminate between exothermic and endothermic reactions.●Discriminate between experimental and theoretical yield.●Evaluate fuels, including fossil fuels and biofuels, in terms of their energy output, their suitability for purpose, and the nature of products of combustion. Investigate:●Explain how endothermic and exothermic reactions relate to the law of conservation of energy and the breaking and reforming of bonds.●Explain that the mole concept relates mass, moles and molar mass.●Explain, in terms of average bond enthalpies, why reactions are exothermic or endothermic.●Identify that chemical reactions and phase changes involve energy changes, commonly observable as changes in the temperature of the surroundings and/or the emission of light.●Identify the limitations of using average bond enthalpies to calculate enthalpy change.●limiting reagent/s and percentage yield●Sketch enthalpy level diagrams for exothermic and endothermic reactions.●State that a mole is a precisely defined quantity of matter equal to Avogadro’s number of particles.●State that heat is a form of energy, and that temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles.●State the law of conservation of mass.●the empirical formula of a compound from reactions involving mass change●the enthalpy change of a reaction, e.g. calorimetry or Hess’s Law.●types of chemical reactions
▶2 — Molecular interactions and reactions45 LOs
▶Intermolecular forces and gases14 LOs
▶Intermolecular forces14 LOs
●3D models of linear, bent, trigonal planar, tetrahedral and pyramidal molecules.* *Note: Simulations may be used.●Analyse data to determine the relationships between pressure, temperature, and volume of a gas. Chem istry 2025 v1.3●Analyse paper and thin layer (TLC) chromatographs to determine the composition and purity of substances, including calculating RF values. Gases●Apply the ideal gas equation to calculate the mass of chemicals and/or the volume of a gas (STP) involved in a chemical reaction. (Formula: PV = nRT)●Apply the kinetic theory of gases to explain the relationships between pressure, temperature, and volume of a gas.●Apply the valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory to determine the shape and bond angles of linear, bent, trigonal planar, tetrahedral and pyramidal molecules. (Hybridization involving d-orbitals are not required.)●Boyle’s law or the molar volume of a gas●Determine the polarity of molecules using molecular shape, understanding of symmetry, and comparison of the electronegativity of elements.●Explain how variations in the strength of the interactions between atoms, molecules or ions in the mobile and stationary phases can be used to separate components.●Explain the relationship between vapour pressure, melting point, boiling point and solubility, and the nature and strength of intermolecular forces (e.g. dispersion forces, dipole-dipole attractions, and hydrogen bonding) within molecular covalent substances. Chromatography techniques●Identify that paper and thin layer chromatography can be used to determine the composition and purity of substances.●Identify that the kinetic theory of gases applies to ideal gases.●State the relationship between the volume of a gas, number of moles and molar volume at standard temperature and pressure (STP).●the separation of a mixture using paper or thin layer chromatography* (TLC)
▶Aqueous solutions and acidity21 LOs
▶Aqueous solutions and molarity21 LOs
●Analyse data, including precipitation and acid-carbonate reactions, to determine the presence of specific ions in solutions. Chem istry 2025 v1.3 Solubility●Analyse data, including solubility curves, to determine the solubility of ionic compounds and the concentration of ions in aqueous solutions. pH●Apply ionic and chemical formulas to construct balanced ionic and chemical equations (including states) for precipitation reactions.●Apply solubility rules to predict if a precipitation will be formed.●Apply the Arrhenius model to explain the behaviour of strong and weak acids and bases in aqueous solutions. Reactions of acids●Apply the mole concept to calculate moles of solute, concentratio n and volume of a solution. (Formula: Molarity/Concentration (c) = moles of solute ( n) volume of solution (V)) Identifying ions in solution●Apply the pH scale to compare the levels of acidity or alkalinity of aqueous solutions.●Compare the solubility of ionic and molecular substance in water, and the intermolecular forces between species in the substances and water molecules.●Determine balanced chemical and ionic equation (including states) for the reactions of acids with bases, metals and carbonates.●Discriminate between the terms solute, solvent, solution.●Discriminate between the terms strength and concentration, e.g. acidic/basic solutions.●Discriminate between unsaturated, saturated and supersaturated solutions.●Evaluate the measurable properties of water that are used to determine the water quality of a local water way.●Explain that the unique properties of water are related to molecular shape and hydrogen bonding between molecules.●factors that affect solubility in aqueous solutions●Identify that changes in solvent temperature can affect the solubility of solid and gaseous solutes (solids and gases).●Identify that the pH scale is a logarithmic scale.●precipitation reactions to identify cations and anions●reactions of acids with bases, metals and carbonates. Chem istry 2025 v1.3●State that pH is dependent on the concentration of hydrogen ions in solution.●State that square brackets ([ ]) are used to denote concentration.
▶Rates of chemical reactions10 LOs
▶Rates of reactions10 LOs
●Analyse data and graphical representations of relative changes in the concentration, volume and mass against time to determine rate of reaction. (Order of reaction is not required.)●Analyse energy profile diagrams for reactions with and without catalysts, to determine the enthalpy change and activation energy.●Apply the collision theory to determine the effect of concentration, temper ature, pressure and surface area on the rate of chemical reactions.●Calculate the rate of chemical reactions by measuring the rate of formation of products or the depletion of reactants. (Formula: rate of reaction = increase in product concentration (∆[P]) time taken or decrease in reactant concentration (−∆[R]) time taken)●Describe activation energy (Ea).●Explain how catalysts affect the rate of a chemical reaction.●Explain how temperature, surface area, pressure (gaseous systems), concentration and the presence of a catalyst can affect the rate of the reaction.●Explain the relationship between the strength and number of the existing chemical bonds, the magnitude of the activation energy and the rate of a chemical reaction.●Sketch energy profile diagrams for reactions with and without catalysts.●Sketch Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution curves for reactions with and without catalysts.
▶3 — Equilibrium, acids and redox reactions87 LOs
▶Chemical equilibrium systems54 LOs
▶Chemical equilibrium54 LOs
●acid-base or conductometric titrations.●Analyse data and interpret graphical representations of relative changes in the concentration of reactants and product against time, to determine the position of equilibrium. Factors that affect equilibrium●Analyse data to compare the relative strengths of acids and bases. Acid-base indicators●Analyse data to determine an appropriate indicator given the equivalence point of the titration and the pH range of the indicator (assuming indicators change colour over a range of pKa ± 1). Volumetric analysis●Analyse data to determine reaction quotients (Q), equilibrium constants (Kc), the concentrations of reactants and products and the concentration of ions in aqueous solutions. Properties of acids and bases●Analyse data to determine the strength, concentration, pH and electrical conductivity of acids and bases. pH●Analyse titration curves to calculate the concentration of a solution with reference to a standard solution. Chem istry 2025 v1.3 The following subject matter may be assessed in the internal assessments.●Analyse volumetric data, including solubility, conductometric and acid-base titration curves, to determine moles, mass, volume and concentration.●Apply Kw to calculate the concentration of hydrogen ions from the concentration of hydroxide ions in a solution.●Apply Le Châtelier’s principle to determine the effect changes of temperature, concentration of chemicals, pressure and the addition of a catalyst have on the position of equili brium and on the value of the equilibrium constant. Equilibrium constants●Apply Le Châtelier’s principle to explain how buffer solutions respond to the addition of hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions. Chem istry 2025 v1.3 Dissociation constants●Calculate dissociation constants (Ka, Kb, and Kw), pKa, pKb, and the concentrations of reactants and products. (Formula: 𝐾a = [H3O+][A−] [HA]; 𝐾b = [BH+][OH−] [B]; 𝐾𝑤 = 𝐾a × 𝐾b)●Calculate equilibrium constants (Kc) and the concentrations of reactants and products. Assume [reactants]initial = [reactants]equilibrium when 𝐾c is very small and state assumption when used. (Formula: 𝐾c = [C]c[D]d [A]a[B]b for the reaction aA + bB ⇋ cC + dD) Chem istry 2025 v1.3●Calculate pH, hydrogen ion concentration [H+(aq)], pOH and hydroxide ion concentrations [OH–(aq)] for strong acids and bases. (Formula: pH = –log10 [H+] and pOH = –log10[OH–]) Brønsted-Lowry model●Calculate solubility products (Ksp) and the concentrations of ions in aqueous solutions. (Formula: 𝐾sp = [C]c[D]d for the reaction aA(s) ⇋ cC(aq) + dD(aq))●Calculate the reaction quotient (Q) for reversible reactions (Formula: Q = [C]c[D]d [A]a[B]b for the reaction aA + bB ⇋ cC + dD)●Describe acids and bases in equilibrium systems using the Brønsted-Lowry model.●Determine the effect of temperature change on chemical systems at equilibrium by considering the enthalpy change for the forward and reverse reactions.●Determine the equilibrium law expression for homogeneous and heterogeneous systems.●Determine the expression for the dissociation constant for weak acids ( Ka) and weak bases (Kb) from balanced chemical equations.●Determine the extent of a reaction from the magnitude of the equilibrium constant (Kc).●Determine the formula of the conjugate acid (or base) of any Brønsted-Lowry base (or acid).●Discriminate between open or closed chemical systems.●Discriminate between strong and weak acids and bases in terms of the extent of dissociation, rate of reaction, pH and electrical conductivity.●Discriminate between the terms end point and equivalence point.●Discriminate between the terms strong, weak, concentrated and dilute for acids and bases.●Explain observable properties and the characteristics of physical and chemical systems in a state of equilibrium.●Explain that the strength of acids is related to the degree of ionisation at equilibrium in aqueous solution.●Explain that, over time, physical change and reversible chemical reactions reach a state of dynamic equilibrium in a closed system, with the relative concentrations of products and reactants defining the position of equilibrium.●Explain the Brønsted-Lowry model using chemical equations that illustrate the transfer of hydrogen ions (protons) between conjugate acid-base pairs.●Explain the effect of changes of temperature, concentration and pressure on chemical systems at equilibrium by applying collision theory to the forward and reverse reactions.●Explain the relationship between the pH range, the end point and the pKa value of an acid-base indicator.●Explain the reversibility of chemical reactions by considering the activation energies of the forward and reverse reactions.●factors that affect equilibrium (Le Châtelier’s principle)●Identify acids as monoprotic, diprotic or polyprotic.●Identify carboxylic and carbonic acids as weak acids and ammonia and amines as weak bases.●Identify hydrochloric, nitric and sulfuric acid as strong acids and group 1 hydroxides and barium hydroxide as strong bases.●Identify that acid-base indicators are a weak acid or a weak base where the conjugate acid - base pair have different colours and can be represented by HIn(aq) ⇋ H+(aq) + In−(aq) or BOH(aq) ⇋ B +(aq) + OH−(aq).●Identify that acids are substances that can act as proton (hydrogen ion) donors.●Identify that amphiprotic species can act as Brønsted-Lowry acid (or base).●Identify that buffers are solutions that are conjugate in nature and resist a change in pH when a small amount of an acid or base is added. (Buffer calculations are not required.)●Identify that indicators change colour when pH = pKa.●Identify that physical changes are usually reversible, whereas only some chemical rea ctions are reversible.●Identify that the equilibrium constant (Kc) indicates the relationship between product and reactant concentrations at equilibrium.●Identify that the solubility product (Ksp) gives a measure of the solubility of an ionic compound.●Identify that the strength of acids can be represented with chemical equations and equilibrium constants (Ka).●Identify that water is a weak electrolyte and the self-ionisation of water is represented by Kw. (Formula: Kw = [H+][OH–])●Infer shifts in equilibrium reactions using equilibrium constants (Kc) and reaction quotients (Q).●Interpret acid-base titration curves to determine the intercept with pH axis, equivalence point, buffer region and points where pKa = pH or pKb = pOH.●Interpret conductometric titration curves to determine the intercept with conductivity axis, equivalence point and volume of titrant.●properties of acids and bases●Sketch the general shapes of conductometric and acid-base titration curves involving strong and weak acids and bases. (Titration of weak acids to weak bases is not required.)●solubility●Symbolise equilibrium equations using ⇋ in balanced chemical equations.
▶Oxidation and reduction33 LOs
▶Redox reactions33 LOs
●Analyse data to determine the relative amounts of product produced at each electrode in electrolysis. The following subject matter may be assessed in the internal assessments.●Analyse data, including displacement reactions of metals, combustion, corrosion and electrochemical processes to determine redox reactions. Electrochemical cells●Analyse data, including standard electrode potentials, to make predictions about the spontaneity of a reaction and to compare electrochemical cells. Chem istry 2025 v1.3 Electrolytic cells●Apply half-equations and oxidation numbers to balance redox equations (acid conditions only) and to discriminate between the species oxidised and reduced, and the oxidising agent and reducing agent.●Apply oxidation numbers (represented as roman numerals) to name transition metal compounds. Chem istry 2025 v1.3●Apply standard electrode potentials to determine the relative strength of oxidising and reducing agents.●Calculate cell potential, 𝐸cell o (Formula: 𝐸cell o = 𝐸reduction half−cell o − 𝐸oxidation half−cell o)●Calculate moles of electrons, current, time, mass of substance or volume of gas produced or used during electrolysis. (Formula: q = 𝑛(e−) × F or q = I × t).●Describe that electrolytic cells can be used in small-scale and industrial situations, including metal plating and the purification of copper.●Describe the standard hydrogen electrode.●Determine the oxidation state (represented with the sign given before the number) of an atom in an ion or compound, e.g. +2.●Determine the products of the electrolysis of a molten salt.●Determine the species oxidised and reduced, and the oxidising agent and reducing agent, in redox reactions.●Discriminate between a galvanic and an electrolytic cell. Galvanic cells●displacement reactions●electroplating using an electrolytic cell.●Explain that electrochemical cells, including galvanic and electrolytic cells, consist of oxidation and reduction half-reactions connected via an external circuit that allows electrons to move from the anode (oxidation reaction) to the cathode (reduction reaction).●Explain that galvanic cells can be represented as cell diagrams, including anode and cathode half-equations.●Explain that oxidation can be modelled as the loss of electrons from a chemical species, and reduction can be modelled as the gain of electrons by a chemical species; these processes can be represented using balanced half-equations and redox equations (acidic conditions only).●Explain that oxidation occurs at the negative electrode (anode) and reduction occurs at the positive electrode (cathode).●Explain that two half-cells can be connected by a salt bridge to create a galvanic cell, e.g. Mg, Zn, Fe and Cu and solutions of their ions.●Explain the products of the electrolysis of aqueous solutions, e.g. dilute and concentration sodium chloride(aq) and copper sulfate(aq).●Explain the term standard electrode (reduction) potential, 𝐸o.●factors that affect electrolysis●galvanic cells●Identify that displacement reactions of metals, combustion, corrosion and electrochemical processes, can be modelled as redox reactions involving oxidation of one substance and reduction of another substance.●Identify that electrolytic cells use an external electrical potential difference to pr ovide the energy to allow a non-spontaneous redox reaction to occur.●Identify that galvanic cells generate an electrical potential difference from a s pontaneous redox reaction.●Identify the essential components of a galvanic cell, including the oxidation and reduction half- cells, the positive and negative electrodes and their solutions of their ions, the flow of electrons and the movement of ions, and the salt bridge.●Identify the essential components of an electrolytic cell, including source of electric current and conductors, positive and negative electrodes, and the electrolyte.●Identify the limitations associated with standard electrode (reduction) potentials, 𝐸o.●Sketch a galvanic cell and label the essential components. Standard electrode potential●State the factors that affect the products in electrolysis.
▶4 — Structure, synthesis and design48 LOs
▶Properties and structure of organic materials38 LOs
▶Structure of organic compounds38 LOs
●3D models of organic molecules.●Analyse data from spectra, including mass spectroscopy and infrared to determine the identity and structure of organic molecules. The following subject matter may be assessed in the internal assessments.●Analyse data to determine the physical properties of an homologous series, trends in melting point, boiling point, volatility and the solubility alkanes, alkenes, alcohols and carboxylic acids. Organic reactions and reaction pathways●Analyse data to determine the structural, molecular and empirical formula of organic compound and the percentage composition of elements in organic compounds. Chem istry 2025 v1.3 Physical properties and trends●Analyse data, including paper/TLC chromatograms and electrophoresis to determine the identity of amino acids and retention factors. (Formula: 𝑅F = distance moved by the amino acid distance moved by the solvent)●Apply IUPAC rules in the nomenclature of organic compounds, up to C10, including simple methyl and ethyl branched chains, for - alkanes, alkenes and alkynes - alcohols (primary, secondary and tertiary) - aldehydes and ketones - carboxylic acids - haloalkanes (primary, secondary and tertiary) - esters.●Apply Markovnikov’s rule to determine the products for addition reactions of alkenes with hydrogen halides (HX) and water.●Deduce the structural formula of geometrical (cis and trans) isomers (non-cyclic alkenes), optical isomers and isomers of the non-cyclic alkanes up to C6.●Describe the acid-base properties of carboxylic acids and amines.●Describe the features of a homologous series.●Describe the structural features of - amino acids, tripeptides, monosaccharides and disaccharides - polyethene (LDPE and HDPE), polypropene (syntactic, isotactic and atactic) and polytetrafluorethene (Teflon). - polylactic acid (PLA), polyamide (nylon) and polyester.●Determine molecular and structural formulas for organic compounds, up to C10, including simple methyl and ethyl branched chains, for - alkanes, alkenes and alkynes - alcohols (primary, secondary and tertiary) - aldehydes and ketones - carboxylic acids - amines and amides - haloalkanes (primary, secondary and tertiary) - esters.●Determine reaction pathways, including reagents, condition and chemical equations, given the starting materials and the product/s formed.●Determine the primary, secondary and tertiary carbon atoms in haloalkanes and alcohols.●Determine the structural formula of optical isomers for simple organic compounds.●Determine, using equations, reactions including the - oxidation of alcohols - combustion of alkanes and alcohols - addition of alkenes to form poly(alkenes) - reduction of alkynes and alkenes to form alkanes - elimination of haloalkanes to form alkenes.●Determine, using equations, the reaction of - alkanes with halogens (X2) - haloalkanes with halogens (X2), sodium hydroxide and ammonia - alkenes with water, halogens(X2), hydrogen (H2) and hydrogen halides (HX) - alcohols with hydrogen halides (HX) - carboxylic acid with alcohol to form esters, and with amines to form amides.●Discriminate between - alkanes and alkenes using bromine water - primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols using acidified potassium dichromate (VI) and potassium manganate (VII).●Discriminate between class and functional groups, e.g. for OH, hydroxyl is the functional group and alcohol is the class.●Discriminate between empirical, molecular and structural formulas.●Discriminate between saturated and unsaturated organic molecu les.●electrophoresis to separate amino acids*●Explain how amino acids can be separated and analysed by electrophoresis, including pH of buffer, isoelectric points, and movement of charged ions.●Explain how amino acids can be separated and identified by paper/TLC chromatography, including intermolecular forces/solubility in mobile and stationary phase and retention (RF) values.●Explain how properties, including strength, density and biodegradability of polymers can be related to the structures of the materials.●Explain that esterification is a reversible reaction.●Explain the acid-base properties of 2-amino acids, including the formation of zwitterions. Analytical techniques●Explain the trends (melting point, boiling point, volatility, solubility in water and organic solvents) within and between homologous series (alkanes, alkenes, alcohols, carboxylic acids) in term of intermolecular and intramolecular bonding, e.g. dispersion forces, dipole-dipole interactions and hydrogen bonds.●Identify chiral carbon atoms.●Identify organic molecules including alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, haloalkanes, esters, amines and amides.●Identify reactions as addition, elimination, substitution or redox (oxidation-reduction). (Reaction mechanism for substitution and elimination reactions are not required.)●Identify structural and stereoisomers, including geometrical (cis and trans) and optical isomers.●Identify that an organic compound displays characteristic chemical properties and undergoes specific reactions based on the functional group present.●Interpret chemical tests to distinguish between alkanes and alkenes; and primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols. Chem istry 2025 v1.3 Organic materials: structure and function●mass spectroscopy and infrared spectra.* *Note: Simulations may be used.●paper/TLC chromatography to separate amino acids*●properties of homologous series*●Sketch the structural formula and apply IUPAC rules in the nomenclature for isomers of alkanes (non-cyclic) and alkenes (straight chain) up to C6, and for the geometrical (cis and trans) isomers of simple alkenes (non-cyclic).
▶Chemical synthesis and design10 LOs
▶Chemical synthesis10 LOs
●Analyse and interpret data to determine the impact of reagents and reaction conditions on yield and rate of chemical synthesis processes. Macromolecules: polymers, proteins and carbohydrates●Apply amino acid symbols to construct and name tripeptides.●Calculate the yield of chemical synthesis reactions by comparing stoichiometric quantities with actual quantities and by determining limiting reagents and/or reaction conditions.●Describe, using equations, how - addition polymers, including polyethene (LDPE and HDPE), polypropene and polytetrafluorethene, can be produced from their monomers - condensation polymers, including polysaccharides (carbohydrates), polylactic acid (PLA), polyamide (proteins and nylon) and polyester, can be produced from their monomers.●Describe, using equations, the - production of ammonia by the Haber process - production of sulfuric acid using the contact process - production of ethanol from fermentation and the hydration of ethene - operation of a hydrogen fuel cell under acidic and alkaline conditions.●Explain that reagents and reaction conditions are chosen to optimise the yield and rate for chemical synthesis processes, including the production of ammonia (Haber process) and sulfuric acid (contact process).●Identify that disaccharides are formed when monosaccharides monomers are joined by glycosidic bonds. Chem istry 2025 v1.3 The following subject matter may be assessed in the internal assessments.●Identify that tripeptides are formed when amino acid monomers are joined by peptide bonds.●the Haber and contact processes*●the properties of polymers. *Note: Simulations may be used.
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